Funeral Wisdom of the World

During the Han Dynasty (206 BC-220 AD), China officially became a Confucian state and prospered domestically: agriculture, handicrafts and commerce flourished, and the population reached over 55 million people. It lasted over four hundred years and it is one of the greatest periods in the history of China. In the 1st century BC China made numerous attempts to consolidate a road to the Western world and India, both through direct and diplomatic relations with the countries located further west. This is when Silk Road network of routes came into existence.

Chinese army regularly policed the trade route against nomadic bandit forces. In the 1st century AD China even sent an army of seventy thousand soldiers and light cavalry troops to secure the trade routes far west across central Asia to the doorstep of Europe. It even set up base on the shores of the Caspian Sea to cooperate with Parthia. China subsequently sent numerous embassies, around ten every year, to other countries reaching as far as Syria.

Around 36 BC Chinese forces encountered and clashed with Roman soldiers in Sogdiana for the first time in the recorded history. These Roman legionaries may have been either irregular warriors or a part of Mark Antony’s army invading Parthia. Chinese got out of this battle victorious, thanks to their crossbows, whose bolts and darts seem easily to have penetrated Roman shields and armor.

In spite of this within several years an intense trade between China and Rome soon followed, probably with Parthians as middlemen. Famous Chinese silk became in fashion among Romans, who thought that it was obtained from the trees. This obsession with silk went so far that its importation caused a huge outflow of gold out of Rome. There is evidence that the The Senate issued, in vain, several edicts to prohibit the wearing of silk, on economic and moral grounds. Senate proclaimed that silk clothes were decadent and immoral.

Alexander the Great and his Macedon generals had great impact in the development and extension of the Silk Road network of routes. Their campaigns are thought to be the first major step in opening the big connection between the East and the West. Alexander’s empire extended from Greece to Central Asia. In Fergana Valley, which is located in modern Tajikistan, he founded the famous city Alexandria Eschate which later became the major point of northern Silk Road.

After his death Alexander’s general Ptolemy and his descendants got Egypt and became first Greek pharaohs. Egypt heavily depended on trade, it had large sea ports on Red Sea and established routes to the Middle East and India and to the South, reaching East Africa.

As for Greek kingdoms in Central Asia, they lasted for the next three hundred years. They were trying to continue the expansion to Sogdiana and India and set up new Greco-Indian kingdoms there. Ancient historians noted not once that Greek kingdoms led their expeditions to China and Chinese Turkestan around 200 BC, which constitutes the first verified by documents contact between China and the West.

There are even more mysteries that surround the origin of the Silk Road network. Nobody could clearly explain one of the greatest archaeological discoveries of the twentieth century - so called Tarim mummies.  The number of mummies were found deep in China, they date from 1800 BC to AD 200. And all found corpses exhibit Caucasoid physical type. Many of discovered mummies were found in amazingly great condition. They have their hair physically intact, ranging in color from blond to red to deep brown, and generally long, curly and braided. And what is even more amazing - their costumes indicate a common origin with Indo-European neolithic clothing techniques.

Another mystery that supports the theories of early human contacts between East and West were several discoveries of Chinese silk remnants. These remnants have been found in Ancient Egypt from 1070 BC and later.

I mentioned in the previous entry ancient Scythians. It seems that they brought from the West and introduced in China the most valuable metal of all - gold. This probably happened around eight century BC. It seems that the impact was deep because Chinese jade carvers began to use gold to make imitation Scythian designs of the steppes. They easily adopted the Scythian style animal art like descriptions of animals locked in combat. Scientists also found in China imitations of Scythian rectangular belt plaques made of gold and bronze with alternate versions in jade and steatite.

Everybody heard about famous Silk Road - a series of trade routes that were vital to cultural interaction connecting East and West Asia. Silk Road linked traders, merchants, pilgrims, monks, soldiers, nomads from China to the Mediterranean Sea during various periods of time. Overall, the serious of routes extended over five thousand miles on land and sea.

Historians are really puzzled and still can not establish for sure, how the Silk Road network began. Originally, the historians point of view was that the Silk Road was initiated by Chinese Han Dynasty around 114 BC. As the years rolled by, new evidence was discovered which pointed out that Silk Road existed centuries earlier before that date. For example, it turned out that ancient Scythians, nomads who Hungarian plain to China participated in Assyrian invasion on Egypt in 7 century BC. Their distinctive arrowheads were found even in the south of Egypt. Scientists also learned that ancient Scythians encouraged long distance travel of merchants as a source of income through the enforced payment of tariffs. So, they, obviously, played an important role in the development of the Silk Road.

But that was not all. Exactly at the same time historians learned about the existence of another autonomous routes of the Silk Road network. This sub network was called Persian Royal Road and extended to almost two thousand miles. Its origin was dated to the fifth century BC. This road was maintained and protected by the ancient Persian rulers and it even had postal stations and relays at regular intervals!

Royal couriers had at their disposal fresh horse and riders at each relay. They could carry messages the entire distance in nine days, though normal travelers covered the same distance within three months. Persian Royal Road subnetwork included the routes to India and Central Asia. In fact, Persian rulers encouraged regular contact between India, Mesopotamia and the Mediterranean. Even in the Biblical Book of Esther, there are accounts of dispatches being sent to provinces as far out as India.

Pharaohs in ancient Egypt had three crowns: red, white and blue. Red and white eventually became a double crown symbolizing united kingdoms of Lower and Upper Egypt. During military campaigns, especially battles, pharaoh wore the blue crown. All of these crowns typically were adorned by a uraeus - stylized, upright form of an Egyptian spitting cobra, used as a symbol of sovereignty, royalty, deity, and divine authority.

For the last two hundred years archaeologists discovered a lot about ancient Egypt. But never, not even once, any pharaohs crown was found. We only know about them from various depictions and portraits of Egyptian rulers.

It is quite mysterious that in spite of so many searches no crown was discovered in tombs either. Of course, many tombs were robbed by grave diggers. Yet, Tutankhamun’s tomb, discovered intact. It contained many regal items but not a crown. Crowns were assumed to have magical properties. So it is possible that there were items a dead pharaoh could not take with him and therefore all crowns had to be passed along to his living successor.

Year 69 AD in Europe is called the Year of Four Emperors. In this remarkable period four Roman emperors Galba, Otho, Vitellius, and Vespasian consecutively became the rulers of the empire. Three of them would rise and fall, while the last one - Vespasian - became the founder of the stable Flavian dynasty that succeeded Julio-Claudians.

After forced suicide of emperor Nero in 68 AD, Roman general Galba was recognized as emperor and welcomed into the city at the head of his legions. However Galba rule ended on January 15, 69, when a large group of Praetorian guard killed him in the Forum. assassins hacked Galba’s corpse to pieces and paraded his severed head on a pole.

Roman senator Otho was recognized as emperor by the Senate that same day. He belonged to the noble Etruscan family descended from princes of Etruria. He ruled till April 16 of the same infamous year of 69 AD. Rebellious general Vitellius easily defeated him in the battle. Otho stabbed himself in the heart with a dagger, which he had concealed under his pillow, and died as his attendants entered the tent.

On the news of Otho’s suicide, Vitellius was recognized as emperor by the Senate. It is interesting to say that around 120 people claimed the credit for killing emperor Galba, being anxious to win Otho’s favour and hoping for a large reward. A list of their names was drawn up, which fell into the hands of Vitellius when he succeeded Otho as emperor. Every one of them was executed.

Vitellius turned out to have extremely violent nature. He quickly accrued large debts by conducting numerous feasts, banquets and triumphal parades that brought treasure close to bankruptcy. Yet, those who dared to demand repayment for debts were tortured and executed. He also started killing citizens who named him as their heir, often together with any co-heirs. New emperor also lured each and every rival into the palace with promises and assassinated them without any remorse.

Vitellius ruled only three months from till December 22, 69. The armies of the eastern provinces had proclaimed a rival emperor; their commander, Vespasian. Very soon all Roman legions of the East, Dalmatia, and Illyricum had declared for Vespasian. Everybody deserted Vitellius. On the entrance of Vespasian’s troops into Rome he was dragged out of some hiding place and there struck down. He was beheaded and his head paraded around Rome. His brother and son were also killed.

The Senate acknowledged Vespasian as emperor on the following day, December 22, 69. This was the end of the Year of Four Emperors. Vespasian turned out to be quite a savvy administrator and reformer. He ruled for ten more years and died of natural causes in 79.

Up until today nobody knows the origin of the Roman triumph ceremony. Some say that it came from ancient Etruscan civilization and then passed to Rome as a civil ceremony and religious rite . No historian could establish with certainty when the last Roman triumph ceremony was conducted.

In the times of Roman republic, triumph was held to publicly honour the triumphator - military commander of a notably successful foreign war or campaign and to display the glories of Roman victory. If the Roman general wanted to have a triumph in his honor, he had to meet certain requirements.

For example he had to be proclaimed an imperator by his troops after a great victory. This acclamation necessary for a general to apply to the Senate for a triumph. Then an imperator would bring the army home, signifying that the war was over and that the army was no longer needed. After being acclaimed imperator, the victorious general had a right to use the title after his name until the time of his triumph, where he would relinquish the title. The definition of great victory meant that not less than five thousand foreign troops were killed during the battle.

Yet this was not all. Only Roman Senate would evaluate all the events in order to give its approval. There were cases, when a Roman general was denied his triumph. For example, Crassus who defeated Spartacus and his army did not receive his triumph, although the threat to Rome was extremely serious. This happened because internal conflicts did not count. Only defeat of the foreign enemy would merit for triumph, all other victories would be evaluated for ovation which was of a lesser form of triumph.

Naturally, when the days of Roman republic were over, the real meaning and importance of triumph ceremony faded. Any Roman Emperor could grant himself triumph at a whim. The tradition of Roman triumphs survived for a while in Byzantine empire. Last recorded triumph was organized in 534 by Emperor Justinian for his greatest general Flavius Belisarius.