Funeral Wisdom of the World

In 1446 a child was born in a small Italian town of Tuscany. Parents named him Luca but we know him by his full name - Luca Bartolomeo de Pacioli, who was destined to become a great Renaissance man, brilliant mathematician and close friend of another genius Leonardo da Vinci. 

Luca taught mathematics to Leonardo, he even collaborated with him on some sci-fi designs of future helping him with precise calculations. He wrote multiple treatises on many subject starting with chess and ending with magic. Yet, incredibly, this is not why Luca de Pacioli stayed forever in the annals of the history.  Without anybody’s help he invented the system of accounting as we know it today.  Our modern accounting follows in details the same principles invented by Luca Pacioli over five hundred  years ago.  This is why we call Luca de Pacioli - Father of Accounting. 

In 1494 he published a huge digest and guide to existing mathematical knowledge.  And the bookkeeping was only one of five topics covered in his work.  In to this topic he managed to fit practically most of the accounting cycle as we know it today. Among all, he described and codified double-entry accounting system, the use of journals and ledgers, accounting ethics and cost accounting. He presented us with understanding of assets, liabilities, capital income and expenses and described preparation of the balance sheets and income statements. 

Pacioli lived to be seventy years old and died in 1517 in the town of Sansepolcro.  Its worth mentioning that this shy franciscan friar Luca helped Leonardo to lay out his grandiose painting The Last Supper with mathematical precision. Grateful da Vince in his turn illustrated Pacioli’s books on mathematics.

If you watched a move about 300 brave Spartans, you know that king Leonidas was one of the most important figures in Greco-Persian wars. But there was also another equally or even more important statesman whose name is is rarely mentioned due to certain reasons that need to be explained.

I am talking about famous Themistocles from Athens. It was him who persuaded Athenians to build a powerful fleet and it is thanks to him that Greek ships defeated the much larger Persian navy and forced king Xerxes I of Persia to retreat. The naval battle of Salamis took place in 480 BC and was the turning point of the campaign, leading to eventual Persian defeat.

After the war Themistocles showed himself as a brilliant statesman again and again by making his native Athens the finest trade place in Greece. But then his life took a really tragic turn. He was accused by his fellowmen of arrogance and taking bribes. That led to the exile of Themistocles from Athens to Argos. Yet, his troubles did not end there. Soon Spartans accused Themistocles of treasonable intrigues with Persia. Subsequently he was proclaimed a traitor in Athens and all his property was confiscated.

As a bitter irony, Themistocles could only find shelter at his enemy whom he fought for so many years. Artaxerxes I, successor of Xerxes I, offered him asylum and took Themistocles under his protection. Artaxerxes even made Themistocles a governor of the province of Magnesia in Asia Minor. He probably was well received in Magnesia and showed his talents there too, because Magnesians worshiped Themistocles as a god.

From what we know, Themistocles died of illness n Magnesia , when he was sixty five. He was probably a broken-hearted man, because there were persistent rumors that his death was not of natural causes but that he committed suicide by taking poison.

Last time I was telling you that Roman dictator Sulla was famous for his bravery and cunning. Here is his glorious deeds in brief.

In 106 BC Sulla participated in the Roman war against king Jugurtha of Numidian in northern Africa. Thanks to him, Romans defeated Jugurtha. Sulla persuaded Jugurtha’s ally and father-in-law king Bocchus of Mauretania to betray Jugurtha, who had fled there for refuge. It was a dangerous operation from the start, for king Bocchus was weighing up the advantages of handing Jugurtha over to Sulla or Sulla over to Jugurtha. Grateful Romans erected a statue of Sulla donated by King Bocchus in the Forum to commemorate his accomplishment.

In 104 BC Rome was in danger again. The migrating Germanic tribes of the Cimbri and the Teutones were heading for Italy. Sulla, as a commander of a Roman army defeated the tribes and was credited as being the prime mover in the victory.

Citizens of Rome needed Sulla’s skills again during the so called Social War that started in 91 BC. This war was fought against the Rome’s Italian allies. During his military campaign Sulla defeated the rebels and outshone all other Roman generals. As a result of his success in bringing the Social War to a successful conclusion, he was elected consul for the first time in 88 BC.

For his achievements Sulla was awarded the highest Roman military honor - a famous Grass Crown. This award was given for personal bravery to a commanding general that saves a Roman legion or army in the field. Unlike all other Roman military honors, it was awarded only by acclamation of the soldiers of the rescued army. By tradition, the Grass Crown was woven from grasses and other plants taken from the actual battlefield.

Sulla’s military skills were required again during the war against powerful Mithridates VI, king of Pontus. Roman general successfully and masterfully defeated king and his allies, despite all odds. For example, in 86BC, in the Battle of Chaeronea Sulla had defeated a vastly superior force in terms of numbers. It was also the first recorded time that battlefield entrenchments were used.

An interesting even occurred in 82 BC that influenced in many ways the future of Rome. At that time Sulla was appointed the dictator of Rome. He had many powerful enemies in the Senate and patrician families. The young Julius Caesar became one of Sulla’s targets. His father-in-law Cinna was number one enemy of Sulla. Miraculously, young Julius Caesar managed to flee the city in time and survive. Yet Sulla never let his adversaries off the hook, so sooner or later young Caesar was bound to die. Young Julius got lucky again. He was saved through the efforts of his relatives, many of whom were Sulla’s supporters. Yet, Sulla noted in his memoirs that he regretted sparing Caesar’s life, because of the young man’s notorious ambition.

Before Julius Caesar and Octavian Augustus, there was a man who, actually, hastened the end of the Roman Republic by his example. His name was Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix, but usually he was known simply as Sulla.

Sulla had the best chance to become the first Roman Emperor but for some unknown to historians reasons he simply did not want to. Contemporaries compared him to half fox and half lion, due to his perceived cunning and bravery. He enjoyed the absolute power of a dictator. Yet one day he stunned Rome by publicly resigning his dictatorship. It happened near the end of 81 BC. Sulla not only resigned, he also disbanded loyal to him legions and reestablished normal consular government, He dismissed his personal guard and walked unguarded in the forum, offering to give account of his actions to any citizen.

Admiring his noble deed, Roman citizen chose him as a consul for the year of 80 BC. After his time as a consul was over, Sulla simply retired to his country villa. He chose not to get involved  with political activities in Rome anymore.  Instead, he started writing his memoirs that were completed just before his death. He died in his bed surrounded by his favorite actors and dancers.

Later greedy for power Julius Caesar Caesar ridiculed Sulla for resigning voluntarily. Yet, Sulla died peacefully, while Caesar was brutally murdered by senators’ daggers. So one can see, who was right in the end.  Unfortunately, example of Sulla inspired other Roman generals who were dreaming of dictatorship. Though he resigned his complete command of the Republic, Sulla was the one who provided the inspiration for Caesar’s future dictatorship. His example proved that it could be done, and therefore inspired other Roman generals to attempt it.

It seems that Alexander the Great not only defeated Darius III and captured his family. He also became the new head of household, replacing the former Persian king. At the time of the Battle of Isis in 333 BC, Darius was married to Stateira I, who was known as the most beautiful woman on Earth. After Darius fled from the battle, Alexander captured his family and treated it with great respect.

Unfortunately, very soon Stateira I died giving birth. It looks like the child that she was pregnant with, was not from Darius but from Alexander. Maybe, that partially explains why , Sisygambus, who was Darius’s mother, refered to Alexander as her only son. It is possible that he took over all household and have assumed the role of a king and husband to Stateira I.

When Alexander the Great died one year later after Stateira’s death, all Darius’s family mourned him as a very close relative. Sources say that they were very much in grief because of this loss. This also indicates personal relationships.

At the decisive Battle of Issus that took place in 333 BC, Darius III and his army were completely defeated by a young Macedonian king Alexander the Great. It was not just any defeat, it was an event that changed the course of history. By losing the battle Darius lost everything, including his family.

It was the habit of Persian kings of those times to carry their harem and all family during the war campaigns. So after Darius’s army was routed, he fled leaving his mother Sisygambis, his wife Stateira I, his children, and many others to the mercy of Alexander

Sisygambis was a very proud woman, so never forgave Darius for his desertion. After all, she was the daughter of king Artaxerxes II Memnon. Alexander captured her but threated mother of Darius extremely well. Sisygambis was so ashamed of Darius that she even refused to mourn his death. When Persian noblemen called upon her with the news, she said that she had just one son Alexander and he was the king of all Persia.

It seems like a true statement, because Sisygambis really experienced maternal instincts towards Alexander the Great. Contemporary sources say that when she learned about Alexander’s death, Sisygambis was so devastated that she did not want to live anymore. She had herself sealed into her rooms and died of grief, starvation and sorrow.

Before I go on with what happened after the death of Alexander the Great, I would like to mention his influence on other nations of the world. Alexander was already a legend in his own time. He was regarded by deity by many, who thought that he processed divine powers. Let’s see what they thought of him in the ancient Rome.

For Romans Alexander the Great was some sort of superstar. Every general and every politician wanted somehow to match his achievements. It is curious to note that ancient Romans were absolutely bilingual people. While they used their own Latin for legal, political and ceremonial purpose, in every day life they spoke Greek for discussing intellectual subjects. The most popular dialect of Greek was Macedonian type of Greek, or as they called it Alexander’s Greek.

Naturally, for all their admiration, this did not prevent Romans to conquer and destroy Macedon kingdom. They did not kill the Macedon king though, he spent the rest of his life under home arrest. Yet, there was some kind of separation of Alexander and his own nation in the eyes of Romans. He and his deeds belonged to the world.

It seems that Alexander was universally beloved in ancient Rome. Great Consul Julius Caesar cried like a baby in Spain at the mere sight of Alexander’s statue. Military leader Pompey the Great went to great extremes during his campaigns in order to get old cloak that belonged to Alexander. As soon as he got it, Pompey wore this cloak everywhere as the costume of greatness. And emperor Octavian Augustus visited Alexandria with just one purpose - to lay a wreath at the hero’s shrine in Alexandria. However, while doing this, Octavian accidentally broke the nose of Alexander’s mummified corpse. And, we need to mention crazy emperor Caligula, who stole the breastplate armor of Alexander, thinking that it would bring him luck. Well, it did not!

History also tells us about the cult of Alexander among the people of Rome. There were really his greatest fans. For example, a noble Roman family of Macriani never parted with images of Alexander in everyday life. They even stamped them into their jewelery and sometimes even stiched to their clothes. During every meal Alexander’s face on every plate and jar. This family was propelled to the Roman emperor’s throne in the third century, but in the end of the struggle perished from the hands of their own soldiers.

In the archives of my web analytics company I read an intriguing ancient story related to sudden and unexpected death of Alexander the Great.  Alexander’s death has been reinterpreted many times over the centuries. And the debate surrounding the cause of Alexander’s sudden death has never been clearly resolved. Here are some clues from the ancient sources.

In the fourth century BC there were quite persistent rumors claiming that Alexander the Great did not die of illness but was poisoned by one of his generals. Well, many had powerful motivations for seeing Alexander gone. Yet, people whispered to each other only one name of the alleged assassin: “Antipater”.  The latter was a famous Macedonian general, supporter of Phillip II of Macedon and his son - future Alexander the Great.  So, how close to truth were these rumours?

Antipater was a great friend to both the little Alexander and his mother, Olympias. In fact, Olympias and Antipater were so close that there was a gossip at the time that he was the real father of Alexander. Later Antipater aided Alexander in his struggle to secure his succession after Philip’s death.

After Alexander left to conquer the world, Antipater remained in Greece serving as the regent of Macedon in his absence. He successfully won many battles against other Greek states and subdued them. Plutarch even mentions, that Alexander the Great became jealous when he heard of Antipater’s victories.

Everything seemed fine, but Antipater’s former close relationship with the  Olympias greatly deteriorated.  Ancient Greeks used to say that Olympias had psychic abilities. Maybe, she already smelled a rat?

Probably, due to Olympias requests, suddenly Antipater lost his title of Macedon regent and was replaced by another general old Alexander’s  veteran Craterus.  Antipater was  ordered the latter to lead fresh troops into Asia.  Exactly at that time Alexander the Great suddenly dies in Babylon which allows Antipater to procrastinate with the transition of power from him to Craterus. Amazing coincidence, isn’t it?

Exactly dated to that time ancient sources start consistently mentioning the rumors that Antipater had been responsible for poisoning the great king.  Sources say that there was a huge threat to  Antipater’s position.  In numerous letters Olympias had been writing to her son that Antipater was preparing unrest and disloyalty in Macedon. Antipater was summoned to apear in front of Alexander in Babylon and answer these charges.

Citing his fear of an uprising in Greece, Antipater had sent his son Cassander in his place. Cassander managed to bring the poison to Babylon in a mule’s hoof. He passed the poison to his younger brother Iollas was the royal cup bearer, who administered it while serving wine to Alexander.

We think that we know a lot about Alexander the Great. We also watched a terrible movie by Oliver Stone that proved to be a failure at the box office, it seems.  In the film Alexander dies leaving his vast empire without a clear inheritor.  So what were the last wishes of the ruler of the world?

Some of antique writers and historians tell us that Alexander left a detailed will some time before his death. For example, he wanted completion of the pyre to his friend and lover  Hephaestion. Nothing is wrong with that. Yet, it would probably come to you as surprise that none of his wishes were fulfilled after his funeral, because his generals and successors considered them too eccentric, extravagant and impractical. Between you and me, they were probably right.  I will name some Alexander’s wishes and you can judge for yourself.

He wanted his generals to build a huge fleet of the thousand or more heavy warships in t in Phoenicia, Syria, Cilicia, and Cyprus.  Why? To conquer any nations that lived along the Mediterranean coasts of modern Spain, Sicily and Lybia. And then to start a military campaign against Carthaginians.  Simultaneously, Alexander also wanted the construction of the longest road in the world through North Africa ending as far as modern Gibraltar.  It would not be just the number one road in the world - it was supposed to be surrounded by huge ports and shipyards along the way. The guy was really super ambitious even after death!

But this is not all. For some reason in his will and written instructions he made a wish to intermix Eastern and Western populations.  For that purpose he demanded after his death to build large cities and compulsory move the whole nations from Asia to Europe. and from Europe to Asia. As he envisioned, this would bring the common unity of peoples in  his conquered lands, due to future intermarriage, family ties and friendship.

Unlike the guy in the movie, Alexander seemed to love his daddy very much. Even after his death, he wanted his soldiers to build Philip a tomb, which would became a new wonder of the world by matching Egyptian pyramids.  In addition, huge, monumental temples should have been constructed in seven big cities of his empire.

When we talk about pirates, we usually imagine these boys sailing on the ships under the flag of Jolly Roger. But in fact piracy has always been here since ancient times. In fact, historians the first documented cases of piracy dated as far back as thirteen century BC. Ancient Egyptian chronicled stories about Ramses II fighting mysterious Sea People who came almost out of nowhere and ruled for some time Aegean and Mediterranean seas. In the archives of my local web analytics company I also found stories about dangerous Illirian pirates, who were operating from western Balkans and probably from some parts in the south of modern Italian peninsula. Roman ships were constantly under their attacks, until republic subdued Illirians in the first century BC. It became one of the Roman provinces in the end.

There are also ancient Greek stories about fierce Thracian pirates who chose the island of Lemnos as their base of operations. They and several other tribes were also threatening and attacking trade ships of ancient Rome. Even great Julius Caesar was the victim of pirates who kidnapped and held him prisoner in 75 BC. Caesar did not look his cool and maintained his superiority towards his kidnappers. And when pirates decided to exchanged him for a ransom, he felt insulted that they were asking so little and told the pirates that they could get for him fifty talents of gold instead. He also promised them that they all would be crucified, but the pirates did not believe him and thought that he was joking.

Well, these pirates surely messed with a wrong man, because as soon as the ransom was paid and prisoner freed, Caesar raised a fleet, pursued and captured the them. He crucified each and every one of them at his own authority, as he promised. And later great Pompey went out with whole Roman fleet to completely eliminate pirates and battled them for three months of full naval warfare.